Signs and Messages of Love in performing Handel´s Giulio Cesare
Marjo Suominen, MA, University of Helsinki, Department of Philosophy, History, Culture and Art Studies, Institute of Musicology
Abstract: Studying metaphors of love in Handel´s Giulio Cesare in Egitto, I will introduce how it is depicted by the arias of the protagonists, via Cleopatra´s and Caesar´s musical relations, as a prevailing message. The atmospheric tone paintings set to the musical highlights of the protagonist arias answer the following questions: how is love defined in Giulio Cesare in Egitto? What kind of musical signs and metaphors of love are there in use and to be found? What will these signs tell us and how will they communicate the message of the work through various performance interpretations of it? Love is an essential theme in Giulio Cesare because the arias` foci are interlocked by the affectual tensions.
Handel composed the opera to Nicola Haym´s libretto which in turn was based on a Venetian opera by Antonio Sartorio and Francesco Bussani produced 47 years before. Bussani´s version utilized some historical sources related to Caesar´s biographies (by Suetonius, Plutarch and Hirtius) in the background. Instead of treating the political intriguing as the main theme, both Bussani and Haym chose rather to emphasize the romantic junctions of the storyline in their librettos.
As a framework of the musical analysis, I am applying the theory of affects in music appearing in the writings by Johann Mattheson (especially his Das Neu=Eröffnete Orchestre, The Newly-Reopened Orchestra, 1713). Mattheson grounded his musical theoretical outlines on Classic Aristotelian and Cartesian ideals (established first in Aristotle´s Rhetoric and later in Descartes´ Les passions de l’âme) which relate closely also to performance practices of the work.
1. Constructing the main themes and the characters in baroque opera
Giulio Cesare belongs to a tradition of historical heroic drama. In it catharsis (meaning cleansing, purging or clarification), according to the Aristotelian virtue ethics ideal, attains a balance by the punishment of evil(ness) and the reward of good(ness). (Ethnersson 2005, 6.) This was a literary device, known also as a poetic justice (see for instance “poetic justice” in Brittannica Online Encyclopedia: retrieved January 28, 2011 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/466054/poetic-justice); in which a work of art serves as a model as well as is to inspire proper moral behavior in its audience by illustrating the triumph of good over evil. It is related to four humors (or temperaments) theory, which was originated by Aristotle and furthered by Hippocrates and Galen, which I will utilize in classification of the character types. The message, moral of the story is delivered by rhetoric-grounded musical (rationalistic) meanings by performing arguments designed by Handel, which fit to the story emphasizing, and elucidating it. Giulio Cesare is based on a Venetian namesake libretto from 1676 written by Francesco Bussani for which the music was composed as an opera by Antonio Sartorio, as already mentioned above. The libretto has been adopted from Metastasian dramas:
“- - In his [Metastasio´s own] view, his dramas were tragedies because, among other things, they were sung; and not only did they conform to the Greek prototypes, they were directly descended from them - - an assertion he made more than once, both in his correspondence and - - in the `Abstract´”. (Weiss 1982, 388.)
1.1 Arrangement of the Characters
Venetian styled 17th century librettos were multifaceted containing different kind of situations, atmospheres, and dispositions of characters. Women characters were portrayed appearing often in public. In Giulio, Cleopatra appears as a public figure, by which love is seen as a central theme furthering the events of the storyline. In 16th century opera seria most characters were presented as types. They had one and the same position derived from a single wish or an aim. Accordingly, in the arias there prevailed one affect or a conclusion. Dramatis personae, the characters of the opera were allegorical. Based on the discussions launched by the Florentine Camerata and the Roman Accademia dell´Arcadia concerning recreating patterns for dramatic foundation, the recitative was formed into a manifestation of the musical ideal. However, in arias affects were used as a device found to justify formulating and developing operatic characters expressing their emotional states, those ones having been considered as acceptable at that time. The formulation that of an exalted, a noble personage in the course of the arias was acceptable even if the characters were not related to each others´ directly (for instance the dialogue-aria), but to themselves (the monologue aria) or to gods, to worship, to some spirits (which was alternatively called as an ombra-, a shadow-, or a ghost- aria), or relating to a sleeping person. (Ethnersson 2005, 4.)
The symbolic nature of the characterization of the types were seen as being connected to more wide-ranging rhetorical (oratory based) context, which revealed idealistic and morally righteous socially and collectively approved messages in the framework of a musical decoration (ibid., 2). The characters were part of the aesthetic, social, collective and moral model which reflected the values and ideals of the time, as seen also in concept of so called “gentilhomme”, gentleman, a cultured nobleman, who knew the proper contemporary behavioral codes set by his position.
It was seen as proper to aim to create a distance by rewriting the texts as metaphors and allegories (as in simile aria). The drama was a sublime reflection of an outer context. The most important character, the hero was a man, also such gestalts as a conqueror´s, a thief´s, a father´s, a tyrant´s, an ally´s, an armor bearer´s, a rival suitor´s, or a contestant´s were for him to choose to perform. Women characters usually possessed roles of a joyful natured, a chaste, a temptress or that of a lamenting victim´s. The protagonist, the hero was by a rule a key to the message of the opera and the protagonist´s character was an allegory to the virtues and distinguished acts, which constituted the ideal of the era´s social and governance that is ruler practices.
The secondary characters lacked the ability to act on the stage, and they conveyed the message of the work, likewise the protagonists, via affective rhetoric. The Woman protagonist, unlike the minor characters, which had to be set to be tied up in certain positions, were more free to adopt different masks for various occasions. The leading lady could also temporarily and at times formed out to have been a rival to the leading man.
1.2 Representation of the Characters
In table 1, I list the affects of the two protagonists. Caesar´s state´s of mind starts from his victorious mood which will be introduced in his opening aria, towards more justified revenge, via his longing for love to consolidation of alliance between the two states, Rome and Egypt and constancy of his love towards Cleopatra, set by him as the ruler of Egypt. Cleopatra starts by a joyful expectation wishing for good prospects. By awaking love, she hopes to operate herself into power and as the sole holder of the throne. She will gain her end by dubious seduction, but her emotions and motives will be cleared and revealed by her true affects of despair, lamenting and victorious revengefulness over Caesar´s enemies and finally by her fairness through her love towards Caesar and justice. Beauty is being celebrated here as a morally virtuous act.
| Caesar: | Cleopatra: |
| 1. Victorious | 1. Hopeful, joyful (expectation) |
| 2. Indignant | 2. Awaking love (potentialities) |
| 3. Attracted | 3. Anticipating / a request for (love) |
| 4. Revengeful (justifying) | 4. Seductive (Parnasso; aiming for to gain love) |
| 5. Enamored | 5. Requesting (for love; an invocation) |
| 6. Revengeful (confirming) | 6. Despairing / Revengeful (doubt) |
| 7. Utterance of longing (of the loved one) | 7. Lamenting / Revengeful (love through grief) |
| 8. Revengeful (victorious) | 8. Victorious / joyful love |
| 9. Love / Consolidation of alliance | 9. Love / Consolidation of alliance |
Table 1.: Affects / moods (by MS.)
There are two main themes appearing in Handel´s Giulio Cesare: love and revenge. Through love, Caesar and Cleopatra will succeed getting into possess the power, to rule the Egypt and Rome together, side by side by defeating the tyrant, Tolomeo, who is seen as unsuited to reign. Characters of the opera have been divided in two categories, in which there are three protagonists found: Julius Caesar (alto castrato), Cleopatra (soprano), and Sesto Pompeo (soprano), and five secondary characters: Cornelia (contralto), Tolomeo/ Ptolemy (alto castrato), Achilla, Ptolemy´s advisor (bass), Niremo /Nirenus (alto castrato), and Curio, Caesar´s tribune (bass).
Each of these characters is bound to a type of character typical to the opera seria tradition: the hero and conqueror (Giulio Cesare), the avenger (Sesto), the tyrant (Tolomeo), the allys (Curio and Nireno), the rival and traitor (Achilla), and the lamenting victim (Cornelia). Cleopatra differs from the others because she has no unambiguous status, but she is driven into situations, which will make her to undergo a personal transition. Her “roles” start from a joyful girl, via seductress, lamenting victim into the heroine (or into a hero, if you like). (Ethnersson 2005, 6).
How Caesar and Cleopatra represent their differing standing points? Will their roles overlap somehow? To be able to study it, one has to examine both the text and the music of their arias, how will their characters take forms through various affects and reflective emphasis.
Music example 1.: “Presti omai” (Act I, scene 1), performed by Jeffrey Gall, countertenor, in Peter Sellars´ modernised stage direction version, Sächsische Staatskapelle Dresden dir. Craig Smith, 1990. Sächsische Staatskapelle Dresden dir. Craig Smith, 1990. Decca: VHS PAL 071 408-3, LD 071 408-1. I.R.T.E.M archive, Rome.
2. Protagonists in Giulio Cesare – Metaphors of power and justice: Caesar
Caesar is being paralleled to the Roman god of war and patron of warriors, Mars, which also is used in biology to describe the male sex, in alchemy; it symbolizes the element of iron, and the red color due to iron oxide. Pride and anger are his most important and most obviously characteristic affects. The affect of pride occur both in protagonists first and last arias. By the affects the protagonists are connected to the drama by text and varied situations. The entrance of the Caesar is the introduction of the opera together with the chorus (the Egyptian people) greeting him as a brave conqueror (“Viva il nostro Alcide”) by the majestic French overture style.
In his aria “Presti omai” he is already being proudly self-assertive, inviting the people to receive and accept him as a victor. His musical affect is heroic, in an Allegro- duple metre, in D major key. Onwards moving harmony is connected with accentuated melodic line, which alternates between larger leaps, intervals and a stepwise progression containing with coloratura fragments. Already in the first act´s third scene, Caesar will perform his second aria, which depicts his second important character type: the warrior. Since the beginning, he is introduced as a high-ranking person within the hierarchy of the characters. He is a triumphant, victorious and militant character type, which status continues to be confirmed both by textual and musical means in the course of the opera. His flawlessness and masculinity are being emphasized directly and indirectly. In a monologue “Alma del gran Pompeo” he reflects a brave hero´s fragile lifespan. Here the accompanied recitative instead of an aria stresses that this is a reflection, contemplation. The music functions as supporting and clarifying the text as a declamatory forth bringing force by heavily and dark accented strokes of the strings. The hero´s noble position will be strengthened by the opening´s majestic Largo, in which the French overture´s tone is prevailing with the dotted figures. Modulating harmony attests his pondering and searching state of a mind. In table 2 one can see how the moods of the protagonists proceed from aspiring to certainty by Cleopatra and assuring reliability of Caesar´s faculties to reign and to effect on Cleopatra.
| Self-assertive | Hopeful | ||
| 1. Victoriousness; energetic, optimistic, hopeful, strong | 1. Hopeful, planned (systematic even) | ||
| 2. Indignance / anger | 2. Conveying potentiality to awake love; hopeful, planned (in an enchanting style; “stile di grazioso”) | ||
| 3. Attraction / a praise for beauty | 3. Anticipating / foretelling/ requesting for love | ||
| 4. An introduction of a justified revenge | 4. Portraying enticing, seductiveness (Parnasso) | ||
| 5. Enamored | 5. A request / an invocation for love (from Venus) | ||
| 6. A vow to revenge (Acc.: a moment of weakness / doubt / uncertainty) | 6. A moment of despair / request (hopeful still) | ||
| 7. Longing | 7. A lament / a vow to revenge | ||
| 8. An utterance of revenge / victoriousness, certainty, strength | 8. Victorious / joyful / love | ||
| 9. Love / consolidation of alliance | 9. Love / consolidation of alliance | ||
| Self-assertive | Hopeful |
Table 2.: An overall pattern of affects in the arias:
Table 3 demonstrates the personality types of the characters of the opera according to the humor theory:
| Characterisations in Giulio Cesare: | Elements: (by Galen [2]) | Humours: (by Galen) | Disease: (by Hippocrates [3]) | Qualities (by Hippcrates): | Seasons: (by Hippocrates) | Personalities / characteristics (by Galen, Avicenna): | Four horsemen of Apocalypse & their representations [4]: |
| Caesar & Cleopatra | Air | Sanguine | Blood | Hot & Moist | Spring | courageous [5], hopeful, amorous, (happy), cheerful | Red Horse – War (passion by MS.) |
| Ptolemy & Achilla | Fire | Choleric | Yellow bile | Hot & Dry | Summer | easily angered, bad tempered (violent, vengeful), enthusiastic | Pale Horse – Death (plotting by MS.) |
| Sextus & Cornelia | Earth | Melancholic | Black bile | Cold & Dry | Autumn | despondent, sad, irritable, sleepless, (saturnine), sombre | Black Horse – Famine (compassion by MS.) |
| Curio, Nireno | Water | Phlegmatic | Phlegm | Cold & Moist | Winter | unemotional [6], calm, (dull; faithful) | White Horse – (evilness / righteousness;) conquer, pestilence (faithfulness by MS.) |
Table 3.: After Aristotle, Hippocrates, Galen: The Four Humors (Types of personalities / temperaments [1]/ character types) and applying their personifications and representations in Händel´s Giulio Cesare´s protagonists.
2.1 Metaphors of love and beauty: Cleopatra
Cleopatra´s entrance marks effective turning point from tragic and joyous sensuality towards becoming more serious (Ethnersson 2005, 6). Through Cleopatra the Roman goddess of love and beauty, personification of womanhood, Venus, will get a moral status. The Ancient Egyptians believed that the star of Venus as to be appearing as two separate embodiments, and they knew the morning star as Tioumoutiri and the evening star as Ouaiti, (Williams 2010, 2), which the Greeks called as Phosphorus, "the Bringer of Light" and as Eosphorus "the Bringer of Dawn". The evening star was named as Hesperos in Greek, which later in Latin was Vesper "the star of the evening" and as Phosphoros which was also Lucifer “the Light Bearer”; Squyres 2011). These symbols will be set against the manhood of Mars, the symbol of war and avenge (maybe triumph too; http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/366325/Mars).
Against Tolomeo it is set to show his incompetence and imperfection as a ruler. Cleopatra begins with a private situation in which she jokes about Tolomeo´s unwillingness towards girls, by implicating in her womanly advantages. So, the features found as favorable / positive to Cleopatra are being referred to found as unfavorable / negative to Tolomeo while considering who might be the best person to be let on the throne.
Music example 2.: Cleopatra´s aria: “Non disperar; chi sà?” (Act I, scene 5), Susan Larson, soprano, in Peter Sellars´ modernized stage direction version, Sächsische Staatskapelle Dresden dir. Craig Smith, 1990. Decca: VHS PAL 071 408-3, LD 071 408-1. I.R.T.E.M archive, Rome.
Cleopatra has love and beauty as her positive force and her way on the throne will not be furthered by heroic acts but by awaking and aiming for love, to love and to be loved, by right. This justifies her thirst for power. Her situation is private instead and against of Caesar´s previous heroic appearance in public. Her status is being strengthened in her opening aria “Non disperar” (stile di grazioso), which captures the joyous moment. She addresses here her brother directly in a defiant manner. Her inner being´s innocence is being marked by decoration which will converge and grow between various ideas into trills, mordents, dotted accents and legato in between the imitative free passage of the vocal part and the chorus group of concertante (agreeing) violins. This adjusting typed of a gesturing differs from its tone and mood that of Caesar´s forwards oriented coherent heroic musical style in his opening aria. Harmonic changes into subdominant and short interjections on interrogatory imperfect cadences, help marking the joyous sensuality of Cleopatra. The affects of the other arias are presented in the opera as waiting/ expectation (in aria: “Non disperar”), as love through seduction (in “V´adoro pupille”) and as love through grief (in “Piangerò”; Ethnersson 2005). In table 4 there are arias of protagonists listed by scenes.
Caesar (Mars):
| Cleopatra (Venus):
|
Table 4.: Giulio Cesare (1724); Dean´s & Fuller´s Score (1998, Oxford)
3. Concluding ideas and research questions
Is Caesar solely to the core a warrior or can one as well, find from him for instance feminine features? How is he related to sensitive emotions and to the opera´s main theme, love? Caesar implicates by this way a proper behavior and a connection with the affect of love. Usually this is done neither by the affect nor equally profiled musical gestaltning i.e. modeling, as in that above mentioned aria, but forms instead on a mild and a charming manner in simple “stile di grazioso” with a moderate tempo, a major key, by a stepwise melodic lines with a dotted rhythm, and a melodic division into short phrases. Music is even illustrating instead of expressive, and Cleopatra will be paralleled in explications of love to delightful wildlife phenomena. (Ethnersson 2005.)
Music example 3.: Caesar´s aria: “Se in fiorito ameno prato” (Act II, scene 2), Sarah Connolly, mezzo-soprano, Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment, on-stage violin Nadja Zwiener, dir. William Christie, 2005 Glyndebourne Festival Production. Glyndebourne Productions Limited (GPL) / Opus Arte UK LTD 2005, DVD Opus Arte 2006, OA 0950 D.
In Ceasar´s aria “Se in fiorito” her song “V´adoro pupille” will be equated with evanescent bird singing. The image is being illustrated musically by dotted legato figures and (laughter resembling) trills on a violin obligato, which is alternating and competing with the vocal line. The dotted prolonged rhythm with the ostinato effect is an allusion on Cleopatra´s preceding sensual aria “V´adoro pupille”, (in which there is practically nothing left of the alluring thrill except the prevailing repetitions, which will be lead more like to that of monotony).
Music example 4.: “Lamenting, complaining” (V´adoro pupille, Act II, scene 2), Valerie Masterson, soprano, English National Opera, cond. Sir Charles MacKerras, 1984. Virgin Classics Opera PVG LTD / ENO London Coliseum / RM Arts Fernseh- und Film GmbH 1984 / Channel 4, VHS Hi-Fi Stereo, VVD 383.
Only once in the opera Caesar points directly at Cleopatra with his love. Cleopatra pretends to be sleeping (after having sung her aria “Venere bella”, a plead to Venus to give her beauty for to help her to charm Caesar) and the declaration of love follows as a plain recitative (“Che veggio, o numi? il mio bel sol qui dorme?”), instead of an aria, adopting in together with decoration the noble and high standing of the Caesar´s. (Ethnersson 2005, 10; After Cleopatra´s aria ”Venere bella” in Act II, scene 7).
Yet unfinished research, which will be continued by my analysis on different dance forms appearing in Giulio Cesare, also on metric, harmonic affects and overall rhetorically based musical structure of the work, as well as an analysis on different recorded (visual and sonic) performance versions of it.
Notes
- lat. temperamentum; mixture; defining man according to mixture of elemental qualities by types of bodily fluids. (Kutzer 1998, 981-82.)
- after to the Aristotelian natural philosophy and elemental qualities of corporeal compounds. (Ibid., 981.)
- in De natura hominis (The Nature of Man c. 400 BCE). (Goltz 1992, 1119.)
- See, for instance: Cunningham 2000, 4-6.
- cf. Plato´s Ethics: Three virtues of state and soul: 2) courage (Gr. andreia). (Frede 2009.)
- cf. Plato´s Ethics: Three virtues of state and soul: 3) moderation (Gr. sôphrosunê). (Ibid.)
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