Bringing vivid memory to expression through narrative construction
Maria da Rocha Gonçalves, University of Aveiro
Abstract: This research aims to go beyond the performers’ background knowledge concerning style and tecnical issues by actively searching a way of connecting their personal imagery to musical meaning construction. Deep personal involvement in the construction of a musical narrative, that is, the process of incorporating musical meaning, seems to be a determinant factor to achieve an expressive, communicative performance. So the author hypothesises that if the musical narrative is built upon a rich frame of different personal associations, it will have personal adherence, and will not only enhance expressivity in the performance as it will also lead to successful memorisation. This article explores further the subject presented in Performa 2009.
Meaning Production and Musical Meaning: the Role of the Body
To recognize that meaning is embodied implies that our perception of reality is deeply influenced by our personal bodily experience. This experience affects all our senses. Some patterns of experience are more subjective and available for metaphorical associations also in the form of action metaphors with a kinesthetic, symbolical and emotional charge. Embodied meaning is intermodal, which means that we can express the same gestural shapes and dynamics through different modalities. For example, we can think about the way we associate the sense of temperature with the picture of the vertical position of a thermometer: a hot temperature is called high, in opposition to a cold temperature, which is low.
This association happens due to human skill for intermodality and for importing meaning in a metaphorical way:
In domains where there is no clearly discernible preconceptual structure to our experience, we import such structure by metaphor. Metaphor provides us with a means for comprehending domains of experience that do not have a preconceptual structure of their own. A great many of our domains of experience are like this. Comprehending experience via metaphor is one of the great imaginative triumphs of the human mind (Lakoff 1987, 302-3).
In music and in the arts, generally, there is not a single valid interpretation, neither a single way for ‘translating’ the meaning of a work of art. Meaning is created through the use of the metaphor and from the reactions of the body to the musical stimuli.
According to this, every single piece of music that is heard or interpreted is, most of the time, unconsciuously related to our previous experience in a singular and personal way. Being music a non-verbal way of communication, it interacts with our personal bodily experience through our senses in a more unconcious way. So, due to the human skill for intermodality, the performer can associate pictures to the music and still remain in the domain of pre-verbal languange, creating knowledge in his body and senses. Imagination always plays an important role, from the simplest to the more complex levels meaning production (cf. Johnson 1987, XIV and Correia 2007, 78).
Musical meaning production is influenced by visual perception both for the audience and for the performer (cf. Martinez 2008, 31-48, Shiffres 2008, 7-30). Further on, in this article, an experience will be discussed where a performer used meaningful and expressive pictures, with and without movement, to enrich and construct musical meaning: being related to the expression of the music, the pictures enabled the creation of action metaphors, which, combined with the performers’ personal experience, enriched musical meaning in performance. [cf. Holmes (2005) and Correia (2007)].
“…there is neurological evidence supporting that there is a close relation between movement and emotion and that this relation is deeply embodied.” (Correia 2007 75, my translation) [1]
Movement and emotion are deeply embodied in the process of meaning production. How does this embodiment of meaning evolve and how does it specifically occur during performance?
The way our cognitive system understands a work of art is metaphorical, through the use of analogies. The analogy converts one simbolical reality to another: the contents of one signifier are imported, abstracted and this abstraction is applied to a new meaning, constructing a new signified. A very straightforward example is the music script: not being music in itself, it sets a handful of directions for the performer to reconstruct – closer or not to the original composers’ idea - the hidden music in the signs. The analogy is used by the performer to transform the readable signs into music, and the music into a meaningful experience of communicative musicality. Even though music has its own written code, much information is re-enacted through the performers’ personal experience and imagination. Using the score as a set of instructions for the music, still the performer will have to actively contribute for meaning construction. Lavy wrote about the listeners’ experience:
If music is in some way "special", it is perhaps not so much because a listening experience invokes some special cognitive powers, but because musical stimuli are by nature incoherent and incomplete; music is not a self-contained world. A listener must invoke a plethora of analogies, metaphors and memories in order to make coherent sense out of the auditory environment, and the very struggle to achieve coherence can even be an emotional experience in itself (Lavy 2001, 208).
In my view, the way a performance is prepared can have determinant impact on the quality of musical communication. In this sense, the performer takes the power of his own embodiment, acting as an Authority for music meaning construction and musical comunication.
I will now describe some of the ways a performer can use imagination in practice, having the goal of enhancing memorization.
Rehearsing Different Types of Memories
From the literature and from the author’s practice as a performer, she discovered that the more meaningful a piece is for someone, the more it interacts with his/her imagination and emotions becoming, in this way, also easier to memorize: aspects of performance that become meaningful turn to be easily memorized. So, if performers make an investment by exploring the contextualisation of the piece, then their performances will certainly be influenced by all those meanings. Apart from historical background about the piece and musical analysis, the author proposes to make an investment on the personal meanings evoqued by the piece in the performers’ body and mind. There will be a plethora of analogies and metaphors stimulating imgination by listening or performing a piece of music. This research is about exploring and stimulating the performers’ imaginary in order to produce meaning.
... performers at the highest levels will carry an internal, constantly refining blueprint of their ideal performance and are prepared to work long and hard in order to follow it. This level of intensity during learning is likely to contribute significantly to effective memorisation” (Ericsson, Krampe & Tesch-Romer in Holmes 1995, 225).
Imagining a detailed picture of the ideal performance requires a fine coordination of different types of knowledge and personal meanings. As described above, Personal Meanings are pre-verbal representations, intermodal, with an emotional and symbolical charge and demand personal involvement. Susan Gathercole refered that:
The degree of personal involvement and emotional experience accompanying an event are important determinants of its memorability. (Conway 1995 in Susan Gathercole 1998, 18.)
In this case, when the performer is more involved with the piece, making different kinds of associations, namely, with his personal meanings and imagination, then a higher degree of memorability should be expected.
The following scheme presents different types of memory systems that interact with each other, fortifying all together the process of memorization. They should be rehearsed independently, but expression should be the hook on which to hang all other associations to the music. (Cf. Fisher 2004, 292.)
Figure 1. Two different types of Memories: Procedural and Declarative
As we can see in the scheme, there are two different groups of Knowledge: Procedural Knowledge, which is directly related to our senses and is related to Emotional, Auditory, Motor and Visual Memory; Declarative Knowledge, which is related to our intellect in what concerns Language and Structure.
Procedural Knowledge
Emotional Memory: Emotionally charged experiences are easier to memorize than others (cf. Gathercole 1998, 18) because they are related to oneself’s autobiographic memory. So, the degree of personal involvement and emotion that are present in a personal experience are determinant for its memorability. The performer’s emotional response to the music is a significant contribution for memorization. So, the performer’s personal investment in expressivity is one of the most valuable retrieval cues.
Auditory Memory: It is defined by the ability to hear the sound inside our head without being physically present. This type of memory is very useful during a performance, because the performer can anticipate the sound he/she will want to play next, even while playing another part of the music. Auditory Memory can be divided into subcategories that relate to each other, such as rhythm, melody (frequency), harmony, intonation (pitch) schemes.
Motor Memory: This kind of memory enables actions to be executed automatically due to the kinesthetic memory of the body: as for example the muscles, tendons, articulations and skin/touch. There is interaction between our senses, our imagination and our muscles, called mimesis: movements that we see or imagine are enacted in our bodies.
Understanding the observed behavior of others involves imagining performing the same or similar actions. Since human musical performance involves specific motor activities, these studies on mimetic motor imagery become relevant for conceptualisation of music as performed… (Cox, 2001, 199.)
Moreover, the repetition of the same gestures creates an enchainement that becomes increasingly automatic. It is a procedural process: once it is started, one movement reminds of the next, without the performer having to think about each action of the chain. This procedural action articulates with declarative knowledge: every time that there is a conscious feedback, trying to understand rationally what is happening with our muscles and movements, it is the linguistic memory that is being rehearsed. In this way, motor memory is being procedurally fortified through the physiological process, giving an emotional, sensitive and auditory feedback. The performer supervising his actions also linguistically fortifies motor memory, due to a constant cognitive feedback.
As soon as Motor Memory turns to be an automatic skill, the performer becomes freer to deal with musical communication.
Visual Memory: Visualizing the score can be a way to remember and activate the performance process. Visual Memory is not only related to remembering the written information, but also the place where it is written in the score. Structure, expression and phrasing can in this way be associated with their ‘places’ in the score, during the unfold of a performance.
Declarative Knowledge
Linguistic Memory: It is a set of instructions that is used by skilled performers to remember information or actions to be held at certain moment of the performance. These mental instructions can be verbal or refer to pre-verbal actions of the body, such as auditory, visual, motor or emotional. This memory can be rehearsed through the use of content addressable memories or retrieval cues, which will activate procedural memories. This means that, for example, if the performer uses the retrieval cue ‘re-exposition’ during rehearsal or performance, he will instantly hear, see and be able to play the music correspondingly.
Linguistic Memory enables to achieve a better control of the mind and to create plans or strategies because it can refer to other cognitive systems, declarative and procedural, through the use of language. Mentally rehearsing a performance can have positive implications in the nervous system. It also automatically activates and coordinates other procedural systems (such as the motor, for example). This memory can also recover information and activate actions during the performance if there is a memory gap in Procedural Knowledge, connected to associative chaining, where one action reminds of the next. Auditory anticipation is a way of activating Linguistic Memory and preparing the next step during performance.
Structural Memory: This type of memory enacts the retrieval of the general order of a structure and sequence of events – as, for example, a story, a biography or a musical work.
Narrative memory is related to structural memory: it is based on schemes or information nets that relate actions, such as movements, intentions or emotions, in a sequence of time. These are articulated through the use of a narrative. It can be based on declarative knowledge but also on procedural knowledge, as for example in dance, dreams and silent movies, children’s books or comics without the use of words. In music, the narrative structure is related to the structure of the music, divided into sections and subsections that include rhythmic, harmonic and melodic structures, for example. Analyzing the structure of a musical work helps to organize rehearsal and fortifies memorization. The term Narrative Memory is more used to describe the structural relation in stories and events and Structural Memory is more used to refer to the relation and general organization of musical structures. The ability to recognize musical structures is something that comes with musical maturity in a style, because it is implicit in the music and needs personal interpretation based on the listening experience.
Structural Memory needs the ability of the individual to infer, classify and map structures, may they be aural, visual, emotional or other. This memory can be rehearsed through Narrative Construction, as it will be discussed later in this article.
It is argued in the literature, that Procedural and Declarative Knowledge fortify long-term working Memory through processes of associative chaining (related to Procedural Knowledge – (Emotional, Auditory, Motor and Visual information) and Retrieval Cues related to Declarative Knowledge – (Linguistic and Structural information). The following picture refers to the way both types of memory relate to each other: Procedural Knowledge, once activated, reminds of the next procedural step. It can run automatically, but if there is some information missing, the chain may be broken and the process stops. This is why associative chaining should be reinforced with many retrieval cues. These help to reconstruct the information at any point of the chain without having to start from the beginning of the process.
Retrieval cues can be structural, when they refer to structural elements of the music, expressive, when they refer to the desired expression, interpretive, when they refer to expressive gestures and tempo or dynamics oscillations, motor, when they refer to critical details of instrumental practice. An efficient way of memorizing is to coordinate and integrate two different activation systems: associative, which is intermodal, motor and pre-verbal in nature, and referential, which is linguistic or declarative in nature. The integration of both systems should be carefully integrated in order to coordinate the high speed of the aquired automatism (associative) with the slower nature of retrieval cues (referential). (Cf.: Ericson and Kintsch 1995 in Chaffin et al. 2009.)
The following picture shows the integration of both memory systems in order to develop a better long-term working memory:
Figure 2. Long-term working memory can be fortified through constant interaction between Procedural and Declarative Knowledge.
Imagining and constructing meaning with an expressive content is a good way to memorize. The different kinds of memory described above correspond to different types of knowledge that can be explored with imagination. In the next section it will be prsented a way to explore imagination and memory in performance, through the use of Narrative Construction.
Creating a Musical Narrative
Narrative in its broadest sense is a story that can be told to ourselves or to the others. A Narrative is a sequence of events that happen with a correspondent emotional charge. An Emotional Narrative, based on action metaphors, is often a way to structure our experiences to more abstract levels of meaning and remain in the domain of pre-verbal language. Many times, we reconstruct our memories in the form of a narrative:
The greater the narrative coherence at the time, the more organized the resulting memory trace and the closer the match with the narrative schemas applied to interpret the incomplete traces many years later. (Gathercole 1998, 18.)
According to this, the more organized the narrative, the better its memorization. So, I will try to explore how a performer can organize a coherent narrative describing some of the aspects that can be important to memorize in a performance. The construction of a Musical Narrative is complementary to Musical Analysis and Historical Contextualization and it presents a way to explore the performer’s personal meanings, values and imagery in the construction of musical meaning,
Narrative Construction can help to articulate different kinds of Knowledge, fortifying the retrieval scheme: Procedural Knowledge, such as for example bowings and finger patterns of a violinist, Declarative Knowledge (Language-based) such as for example Structural and Historical information about the piece, retrieval cues (about expression, technique, and so on) and Pre-declarative Knowledge (Embodied Meanings: Emotions, Empirical Knowledge, more abstract levels of Meaning). These three types of Knowledge interact with each other and help to structure musical discourse and gestures, exploring different intermodal associations to the musical meaning, such as Emotional, Visual, Auditory, Motor, Linguistic and Structural.
A teaching methodology proposed by Correia (2002, 2007) deals directly with the Constuction of a Musical Narrative for preparing a meaningful, expressive performance. In this methodology, the process of contextualization aims to explore meaningful cues, which, hopefully, will trigger the desired expression. But, because musical meaning constructions result from the association of the musical gestures to personal meanings, each performer should select what for him/her is meaningful. Personal experience would be in this way connected to performance through the use of metaphorical projections and would have determinant influence on long-term memory due to the intrinsic performers’ emotional involvement. Narrative Construction actively requires the performer's investment to articulate personal meanings with the music. What makes it special is that it defines an embodied reference to the character and setting of the piece.
I will now describe the operative model for preparing a performance based on a musical narrative as proposed by Correia (2002, 80). First, there is a Contextualization:
Performers adopt inevitably a particular context or semantic field for the musical work they are about to perform. (Correia 2002, 80.)
The idea of constructing a musical narrative seems to be a way of exploring and connecting Musical Meaning with a kinesthetic, symbolical and emotional charge. In order to express his or her (setting of a) musical narrative, the performer can decide about the appropriate gestures, emotions and techniques, such as Vibrato, Colour of Sound (timbre), Articulation and Microdynamics. This step is called (E)motionally Exploring the Context:
Inspired from the chosen context, performers use movement images and/or action-metaphors in order to inject sounds with the right emotional content, or, in other words, to coordinate their emotional acting and its channeling into an imagined narrative of purposes. (…) When applying this emotional content to the musical sounds they make them expressive, but fairly abstract. (Correia 2002, 80.)
After the expressive gestures are found to express musical meaning with the right intention and technique on the instrument, these gestures should be constantly rehearsed in order to become incorporated and become an unconscious competence: developing automaticity. (The author) He calls this step Coactivation:
It seems that once the (e)motional content for each situation in music is established, a period of training takes place. (…) This training happens to be crucial to the peculiar conditions of the performance situation: embodying the created network of emotions the performer is preparing him/herself to be able to function, even if only for short periods of time, exclusively from core consciousness. (Correia 2002, 81.)
Coactivation is followed by musical communication in the performance ritual. The performer will now be freer to deal with memorization and with communication with the public. The author describes this step as Becoming:
To function from a kind of rehearsed automatic pilot does not mean that one cannot, at the same time, produce spontaneous reactions to the here-and-now of the performance ritual. (…) To perform would be then, perhaps paradoxically, not so much to reproduce automatically what was memorised in rehearsal, but to re-live here-and-now the devised emotional narrative. (Correia 2002, 81.)
This operative model is a strategy for the performer to consciously find what for him is meaningful in the music he plays, in order to ‘give a life of its own’ to the tunes written in the score and concentrate on musical communication.
The Performer: Embodiment of Authority
When a performer works to make a personal musical narrative for a piece of music, there are certain moments of intense fruition where the emotional body seems to take over any rational thinking, with authority. These feelings that only happen in the here-and-now of the performance, can be retrospectively analyzed, in an effort to understand which were the different aspects that originated those spontaneous affective responses. Curiously, we cannot focus our attention in external factors, but only on the interaction of certain adjustments within the body. These adjustments became significant in those moments, but the nature of this interaction within the subject remains a subjective experience in the sphere of immanence, introspectively. Although our affective experience remains in the field of pre-verbal language, the subject acquired a new knowledge, procedural and pre-declarative that changed the current perception of the link between outside and inside the self and was memorized in the form of a metaphorical projection, charged with feelings and emotions. But the subject will be able to refer to this experience through referential memory and its correspondent retrieval cues: experiencing again and again that piece of music, exercising his/her interpretation, his/her body will enact the same metaphorical projections developing relations between them and establishing a sense of narrative. When the performer makes two different referents correspond, making an analogy, the metaphorical process is activated and meaning is produced. For example, looking at the picture of a field and listening to Beethoven’s 6th Symphony instantly changes the meaning of each of the elements separately. Making the correspondence between these two alters the perceiver’s point of view and subjective experience due to human ability both for intermodality and for what could be named interwined multimodality. So, the performer, developing and activating repeatedly a metaphorical projection for each situation, succeeds in constructing his/her musical narrative printing a deep personal mark for each musical work. In this view, the performer has an important role in determining the meaning of a musical work and one can say, comfortably, that when he/she performs a piece they are also embodying authority.
Empirical Investigation: A Reflexive Case Study
In this section, the author reports and discusses the results of a reflexive case study where she used different paintings as inspiration to constructing a musical narrative and help memorization for the Prokofiev second Violin Sonata. Paintings aimed to work as retrieval cues for an emotional narrative in what concerns Musical Structure, Expressivity, Sound and Gestures. They were also expected to reinforce associative chaining of musical events: what you are playing reminds you of what comes next and help to prepare multiple starting points through the use of content addressable memories.
Methodology
The author chose to associate paintings for helping to construct musical meaning in the first phase of the process: contextualization. This contextualization was based on free associations between paintings and the music because the author is especially sensible to these arts, being the connection between the two quite effective in stimulating her imagination, thus, strongly suggestive. The author searched for meaningful pictures in various books. It was an extensive search, because affective meaning should be redundant between the paintings and the music, one fortifying the emotional meaning of the other. There was no concern in making both art periods correspond: all periods of history of art were eligible for the paintings. The logic for making both pictures correspond was kinesthetic, because pictures were referring to specific moments of the music; syntagmatic, because pictures looked forward to reinforce expressive content of the musical narrative. The process of integration of an embodied meaning in a musical interpretation will now be described, based on the operative model proposed by Correia (2002):
Contextualization: adding to formal analysis and historical contextualization, there was a process of free association of the music with paintings;
(E)motionally exploring the context: the chosen paintings were articulated into a coherent emotional narrative and the correspondent gestural continuities and performative choices were defined;
Coactivation: there was a period of rehearsal, constantly repeating the performative choices, in order to develop automaticity. The target was to set the mind free for memorization and communication with the public.
Becoming: once the automaticity of the gestures is established one feels free to connect with the room atmosphere each time that the piece is performed and react accordingly, bringing new and unexpected nuances in a kind of improvisatory manner. (Correia, 2002, 81.)
Process
The author chose the following paintings as a personal meaningful reference for each movement of Prokofiev’s second violin Sonata:
For the first movement, a triptych of John William Waterhouse, Lady of Shallot, was chosen for contextualizing the emotional content. This triptych is an illustration of the poem ‘Lady of Shallot’, written by Tennyson, that tells about a Lady that was living in a Castle under a Spell. She had to make a tapestry of everything she observed in ‘the real’ world, but she was impelled to look only indirectly to the window through the reflection on a mirror. One day, she hears Sir Lancelot coming in a horse and cannot resist looking directly through the window to see him. She activates the spell that will lead to her death. So, she runs out of the castle and takes a boat that will reach to Sir Lancelot’s Kingdom. The story can be observed in the paintings. The musical theme can have this emotional charge. Exposition is associated with the first and reprise with the third painting. The second painting reflects Lady of Shallot afraid of dying, looking for a solution.
The author tried to adjust Vibrato, Intensity, Articulation and Sound Colour etc. to portray the right atmosphere for each situation, inspired by the paintings.
For the second movement, the painting from Gino Severini, Pan-Pan Dance at the Cafe Monico was chosen. It is a fragmented and colorful picture, where she can feel dance and laughs in a Café at night, in the 20s. She tries to reflect this cheerful atmosphere in her interpretation, especially through articulation.
For the third movement, a painting by Monet, London Parliament was chosen. In this picture the observer doubts if it is dawn or sunset. Colors are mixed and give the impression they will change at any moment. She especially tries to reflect this changes in micro-dynamics.
In the fourth movement, different emotional contexts are presented in the musical structure. The choice for the main theme was Magritte, La Colère des Dieux. The reason for choosing this picture that interacts with the speed of a horse rider on a slow-marching car is the interaction between piano and violin: the piano is steady like a motor, contrasting with the galloping and courageous melodic line of the violin.
The only thing that can be said about the results of this experiment is that the presentation of the recital had a very positive feedback from the public and from professional experts in this instrumental area. The recital was recorded in a DVD, which is part of the author’s MA dissertation (Gonçalves 2010).
Discussion
These paintings worked as a referent for performative choices and helped for the emotional contextualization and correspondent performative choices. When performing, she kept these pictures in mind, almost unconsciously, to set the right ‘emotional contextualization’ for each movement of the sonata.
Musical Narrative Construction is based on associations with the music that can be grounded historically, analytically and affectively. Adding to formal analysis and historical contextualization, this experience reports about the affective investment of the performer. The construction of a musical narrative helped not only to learn the sequence of musical events, but also structure musical moments. There was a personal investment of the performer in creating meaning behind the music, blowing vibrant life into the tunes. If we consider the score as a script, then there must be a personal investment of the performer to create meaning. Should two passages sound the same if they look the same, but in different parts of the music, say, exposition and reprise? According to this research, the answer is no, if they correspond to different affective moments of the musical narrative. Timbre, Vibrato and other performative choices remain unwritten and open to the choice and taste of the performer. Intentions and bodily knowledge that were kept in our bodily stock of affections are explored in order to make two referents correspond. It would be particularly interesting to make this narrative subject to psychological analysis. The personal impression of the author is that she discovered how she was feeling inside through observing the chosen paintings. Comments on the choice of paintings included the observation that there was some resemblance between the paintings and the performer. Adding to this personal knowledge, there is an invaluable power to structure musical events through the use of the narrative. Macro and microstructure can be visualized in terms of emotional intention, with retrieval cues (the paintings) for each different moment of the music. In summary, the analogical process of deciphering the music script and blowing life into the music was completed with a personal investment of the performer’s imaginary, based on her personal experience.
Conclusions
The reported empirical investigation was extremely valuable for the construction of an interpretation of the sonata, due to the fact that it guided the performer to explore the music in terms of emotion and not only in terms of historical contextualization. For one side, the association of the music with a pictorial referent inspired to create a consistent narrative with a unifying thread of musical meaning, unfolded in time. On the other side, the author discovered her intimate relation with these two different artistic universes and her emotions and corporeal sensations that each one of them enacts. In other words, free association of the music with paintings helped to structure an embryonic subjective amalgam of thoughts in a definite context (cf. Correia 2002, 161). Gradually, there was a process of increasing awereness of the performative options in order to achieve emotional events. There was more autonomy in constructing an interpretation, which was well accepted by other fellow musicians, stylistically correct and enmeshed in deep personal meaning. As a performer, the author felt more determination, safety and confidence while presenting her performance, because she knew ‘her story’ and ‘what she wanted to communicate’. She was not reproducing her teachers’ views or other performers’ views of that work, but she assimilated what others did and compared with her own interpretation while preparing the performance. The teaching metodology was easy to work with and stimulated the syncronization of different types of knowledge and competences, namely technical, expressive, musical meaning and memorisation. Different types of knowledge and memory were stimulated: Procedural, tacit and motor, visual, emotional, expressive and Referential, declarative and structural.
Narrative construction can help to structure a mental frame with different types of information. In the specific case of this experiment, a pictorial reference was a good metaphorical referent because the performer attributed value and meaning to paintings. Every performer should know what for him/her is meaningful, in order to organize, structure and elaborate musical meaning and emotional memory. Personal meanings would be in this way connected to the performance and have influence on expressivity. Elaborating a rich frame of different associations to musical meaning will have impact on and can lead to a successful memorization.
The present research could be used as an example to other performers to enriching their imagination and expressivity on a piece of music.
Notes
- “... há evidências neurológicas que nos permitem argumentar que há uma relação íntima entre movimento e emoção e que essa relação é física/corporal ao mais profundo nível.”
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